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Embroidery in the late 20th century has come a long way from the traditions of the past. However, the basic methods still hold good - without sound technique and favorable materials and tool embroiderers are unlikely to be able to exploit their ideas to originate inspiring and innovative work.
Most habitancy conduct with quite a small basic kit of tools:
Scissors, pins and needles, tape quantum and embroidery frame, and these, together with an iron and a sewing machine, are all that are needed to make a start.
Needles
It is valuable to choose a needle which suits both the fabric, and thread and the type of embroidery you are undertaking. The needle should pass unquestionably through the fibres of the fabric, and the yarn through the eye of the needle. Needle size is designated by number, with the lowest number in each type signifying the longest and thickest.
Embroidery (or crewel) needles in sizes 1-10 have long eyes which will take embroidery silks, cottons and linens, and fine wools. They are favorable for a wide range of embroidery techniques.
Quilting needles, also known as "betweens", and made in sizes 1-10, are short with small round eyes. They are ideal for making the quick, even stitching needed for techniques such as quilting and hemming in fine thread.
Chenille needles, in sizes 13- 24, have sharp points and large eyes, and will take all types of thick yarn as well as ribbon and raffia.
Tapestry needles are similar to chenille's, and also come in sizes 13-24, but have blunt points which slip in the middle of the threads of canvas or the fibres of even weave linen, making them the definite option for needlepoint and all the counted thread methods. Other expert needles include long, fine beading needles, and leather needles whose triangular points will pierce all types of leather, suede or plastic.
Bodkins are for threading elastic, ribbons and cords, while circular needles are goof for three-dimensional embroidery.
Threads
Good-quality thread and yarns are essential, and they should be prime not only for practical reasons but also for aesthetic ones: colour and texture are both vital factors in embroidery.
There are so many dissimilar types of thread on the store today that the option may at first be overwhelming.
Indeed anything which can be threaded through the eye of a needle can be put to use in an imaginative way for experimental work. Also conventional embroidery threads, knitting and crochet yarns, ribbons and cords are also easily available, while some of the more expert items can be purchased by mail order.
Cotton threads in a range of colours and thicknesses are widely used for all types of embroidery, as they are hard- wearing and washable. Stranded cotton is particularly versatile because the six strands can be divided to yield a number of thicknesses. This makes it favorable for dissimilar effects and techniques, particularly for face stitches. For counted thread work, changes of tone can be achieved by varying the number of strands. In needlepoint, cotton can add lustre to unlikeness with the matt texture of the more usual woollen threads.
Pearl cotton is a shiny, twisted yarn which comes in balls and skeins in three thicknesses -3, 5 and 8. It is favorable for face embroidery and needlepoint as well as coarser types of counted thread work.
Coton a broder has a minute sheen and is of fine twisted construction. It is particularly good for counted thread techniques and smocking as there are no strands to separate.
Soft embroidery thread is a thick cotton yarn with a matt surface; it can be used for needlepoint and work on coarsely woven fabrics.
Embroidery wools come in some qualities and thicknesses. Although some are primarily manufactured for needlepoint, they are favorable for all types of face embroidery such as crewel and laid work.
Tapestry wool is a 4-ply twisted yarn, while crewel wool is 2-ply and can be used singly or some strands at a time. 3-stranded Persian wool is loosely twisted.
In addition to cotton and wool threads, linen and silk are ready in expert shops - linen has a dull, slightly rough face in unlikeness to the beautiful lustre of silk.
Machine threads include commonplace sewing cotton and polyester as well as thicker buttonhole twist. In recent years the range ofembroidery threads has been vastly extended to include metallic-finish and shaded varieties.
Metal threads come in gold, silver, copper and aluminium, fluctuating in type from fine tambour threads favorable for stitching to thicker cords and braids which have to be couched. Nowadays many habitancy use artificial threads for metal thread embroidery.
Fabrics
When selecting fabrics, the practical aspect of the project should be carefully as well as the colour and texture. Wall hangings and embroidered panels gift few practical barriers, whereas garments and household items need a fabric which can be cleaned or washed. For all decorative items, the texture and colour of the background fabric will make a optic impact together with the other materials used.
In addition, it is valuable to choose fabrics which are favorable for the single embroidery technique. embroidery fabrics are ordinarily cotton or linen, which may be intimately woven for face embroidery and cutwork techniques. Evenweave fabrics, which are all the time used for counted thread work, are woven, with from 12 to 32 threads per 2.5 cm (1 in). Some, such as Aida and Hardanger fabrics, are constructed with a double-thread weave.
Dress and furnishing fabrics in both natural and artificial fibres are ready in a wide range of textures and patterns. These may be incorporated in appliqué projects or used as backgrounds.
For needlepoint embroidery, there are two main types of woven canvas, those with single or duplicate threads. Both are ready in assorted widths and gauges (or threads per inch. single (or mono)canvas comes in gauges fluctuating from 10 to 24 threads per 2.5cm (1 in) and is more adaptable for stitching a collection of stitches. duplicate (or Penelope) canvas is generally used for trimming or for fine details. Rug canvas in gauges 3 to 7 is favorable for large-scale work, and a recent innovation in moulded plastic is used for rigid articles such as boxes and tablemats.
There are a number of subsidiary types of fabrics which are used by embroiderers to keep or pad their work.
Wadding is ordinarily made of artificial fibres, but sometimes of silk or cotton. Its main use is for quilting (page 101) or for padding and stuffing three-dimensional shapes. Felt can also act as a firm padding or as an insertion in types of appliqué.
Non-woven iron-on or sew- in interfacings used by dressmakers are also favorable for stiffening fabrics for appliqué or for backing fulfilled, wallhangings; bonding web is extremely useful for fusing fabrics together.
Dissolvable fabrics used for making lacy effects and constructions by machine come in whether hot- or cold- water types.
Other equipment
Two pairs of sharp scissors are needed for embroidery - a large pair for cutting out fabric and a small pair for trimming threads and cutting intricate pieces or holes.
Pinking shears are useful for cutting decorative edges. A stiletto, often found in old workboxes, is used for making eyelets in broderie anglaise.
Using a thimble is largely a matter of personal choice, but will prevent sore fingers when quilting or working in leather. A block of beeswax is useful for techniques such as quilting and metal thread embroidery. The thread is drawn through it, preventing it becoming twisted and helping to give it strength.
Design materials.
Most of the tool needed for designing embroidery is easily at hand. A sketchbook, pencils and some coloured crayons or felt tips are all that are needed for your introductory attempts.
If you prefer to use paint, watercolour, poster and gouache are the most useful. dissimilar types of paper, along with tracing and graph paper, are required for some methods, while coloured and textured papers and card are good for stencils or for trying out bold ideas. Paper scissors, a craft knife and metal ruler are useful implements when working with paper or card. Fabric and paper adhesives, masking tape and geometry instruments can all be purchased as and when the need arises.
Transferring designs.
There are a number of ways of transferring and marking the make on to the background fabric. The method and the type of marker depends on the technique chosen, the fabric and the intricacy of the design. In every case the make should be very lightly marked so that it will not show when the embroidery is complete. Fabric markers include dressmakers' chalk and pencils, water-soluble and air-soluble pens, replacement and permanent pens.
Direct tracing is probably the simplest method for transparent materials. If the fabric is opaque, it can be taped to a window (or a light box) with the make beneath it.
Dressmakers' carbon comes in some colours and works in the same way as commonplace carbon paper.
Pricking and pouncing is one of the oldest methods and is favorable for repeat motifs as only one tracing needs to be made.
Tracing and tacking is best for bold designs. A version of this method is used in machine quilting when the form of the make is stitched directly through the tracing paper.
You should be able to source all of these things from your local haberdashery store, or if you don't have one there are plentifulness of online haberdashery suppliers.
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 Availability : Usually ships in 6-10 business days |
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The history of the sewing machine is a long and complicated one. There are literally many disputes over who invented the machine. Let us take a look at how it all began.
The first of its history goes back to England by German Charles Weisenthal in 1755, which many believed was he who invented the sewing machine. He had applied for a patent for a needle to be used with a inescapable machine, but it is unknown what that machine was literally used for. Then in 1790, Englishman Thomas Saint applied for a patent for an awl that could perforate straight through fabrics like leather, creating holes. This remained a patent and was never successfully made. After that was a series of ideas that never worked, such as in 1804, Frenchmen James Henderson and Thomas Stone came up with an idea of manufacturing a sort of machine that would be able to imitate hand sewing. That year itself, John Duncan was given the patent for a sewing machine with many needles that were made for embroidery. But these were never marketed. In the meantime, there was German Balthasar Krems who is the first person to originate an self-acting machine in 1820, but since it did not function properly nor did he apply a patent for it, people rarely rejoinder him in the history of sewing machines. And in the Us, the first machine man-made was by John Knowles and John Adams Doge in 1818, but they were not successful as the machine could not sew on any fabric.
Barthelemy Thimonnier was the first person who came up with a working machine, with his prototype that had a hooked needle which allowed a particular thread to form chain stitches in 1830. They were man-made commercially and Thimonnier even opened his own sewing factory, which threatened the jobs of former tailors. But the first commercially produced sewing machine was by Isaac Singer, which machine created a unique needle movement of up and down instead of side to side, very much like today's sewing machines. Unfortunately for him, he did not get the patent as an American machine builder named Elias Howe won the patent first. To date, there are many dissimilar models machines with varied functions. But regardless of which model, they still consolidate the same idea based on the former patent.
Who Invented The Sewing Machine?Pottery is regularly made of clay, which can be molded into a range of shapes while wet. Once the form has been established, the piece of porcelain is placed in a hot kiln, where the high climatic characteristic hardens the clay and gives it permanence. In order to give porcelain and porcelain a smooth, shiny finish, one of several glazes must be applied. It can also be used to make some kinds of porcelain less porous.
An underglaze is a type of glaze used to spin the embellishment applied to pottery, while an overglaze is used to create a shiny outside over the decoration. Not only does the overglaze contribute a protective layer, it also leaves colors vibrant. When using this type of glaze, the piece of porcelain is first "fired" in a kiln, the overglaze is applied, and the item is then re-fired. The heat helps to blend the color pigments with the glaze and creates a glass-like, shiny surface.
Ceramic glazes regularly consist of silica, a component of quartz. Normally, a very high heat is required to melt quartz, so a "flux" is added to the glaze. Flux is a substance that lowers the melting climatic characteristic of a single mineral or mixture so it can be fired at a lower heat, the most coarse of which are lead, potassium, sodium, lime and calcium oxide. Pieces of porcelain can be dipped into the glaze, sprayed or the glaze can be applied with a brush. Glaze can also be poured directly over the pottery.
Lead glazes have existed for centuries, although some controversy exists over its use. Many potters claim that they cannot achieve the proper color shade or glow without the use of a lead glaze, while others argue that lead is not an suitable alternative for household use. It is often strongly suggested that, as a protection precaution, consumers refrain from purchasing cookware or dishes that consist of a lead coating. Even edible plants are susceptible to acquiring lead residue if grown in a container glazed with lead.
It also helps to know the origin of a piece of pottery, as underdeveloped countries do not yet understand the implications of using lead and sometimes fire their pieces at low enough temperatures that would allow toxic release into food or drink.
Pottery containing alkali glazes, using salt and/or potassium, have also been found throughout history; it is not unusual to find a piece that features a glazed mix of lead and alkali. Regardless of the type of glaze chosen, porcelain is regularly fired at temperatures between 950 deg C and 1430 deg C. Glazes are found on a range of household items, together with toilets and sinks, tableware, figurines and giftware, and tiles.
Why Glaze Type is leadingAs Metallica awesomely misquoted from Shakespeare, "heavy is the head that wears the crown." Probably because most heads legitimately willing to wear a crown are a wee bit on the swollen side. And since big head + big crown + huge responsibility approximately never = rainbows and cupcakes, it's easy to see why the phrase "power corrupts" is so universally held as truth.
For a great pick-me-up in the morning, check out the day's world news. Or local news. Or high school news, for that matter; it's no monumental task looking examples of great population doing jerky things. After having run the Zimbabwean economy into the ground and left his population starving, President Robert Mugabe reportedly threw a 0,000 birthday party for himself this February. (Sounds like somebody opted for the pony And the inflatable funhouse.) Meanwhile, rival drug cartels continue to terrorize the Mexican countryside with guns and grenades, mercilessly killing any innocent civilians who happen to get in their way. Iran is currently limiting its citizens' internet transportation and restricting journalists' outdoor time due to the fact that Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's "landslide" victory has left voters rioting - and getting gunned down - in the streets. Oh, and I think there was also something about this Madoff guy and a global financial crisis? Be strong, Iceland.
Sadly, these stories all fall under the "same old story" kind of history: boy meets money/influence/assault rifle, boy takes money/influence/assault rifle, boy devastates nation. Just think Macbeth. On the way home from a thriving battle against the Irish, general Macbeth is given the title of "Thane." We have no idea what that means, but he seems pleased and we're left to stop it's some sort of promotion. Macbeth is then foretold that his newfound success will finally lead him to become king of Scotland. Which sounds ridiculously enticing, except that it would mean bye-bye King Duncan, whom pretty much everyone (including Macbeth) adores. With some serious nagging from his wife, however, Macbeth is persuaded to kill the king. Followed by everyone who suspects he might have killed the king. Followed by just about every other character in the play, to the point where even Lady Macbeth thinks Yikes and throws herself off a castle. In the wake of his wife's suicide, Macbeth decides that life is meaningless, only to get his head cut off by - you guessed it - the next guy in line to replace him as king of Scotland. The head that wears the crown may be heavy, but it gets significantly lighter when it's left out to dry on a pole.
"Macbeth" seems to be a pretty clear-cut case of power's corruptive follow on people, but what if you compare it to an additional one play about power and corruption, like Henrik Ibsen's "Hedda Gabler"? The play's namesake, Hedda, is a bored, manipulative, and seemingly remorseless housewife whose mind games and power struggles break up a relationship, devastate a career, and quite intentionally lead to someone else's suicide. Unlike Macbeth, however, Hedda's behavior is not driven by any newfound sense of power; rather, it is her unblemished powerlessness and repression in a straightlaced 19th-century Norway that causes her to lash out. When the local judge uncovers Hedda's involvement in the suicide and attempts to blackmail her, Hedda takes operate of the situation using the one form of sway she has left over her life: by shooting herself in the head. As "Hedda Gabler" demonstrates, it isn't power itself, but rather the struggle for power that corrupts people. Come to think of it, this seems to hold true in "Macbeth" as well. After all King Duncan, is a perfectly decent guy; only when Macbeth decides to vie for his place do things get ugly.
So next time you have the chance to heighten your center in life, try not to let it - or any sharp instruments - get to you head.
Corruption and Power according to Shakespeare, Ibsen, and MetallicaThe pleasing appearance of citrus trees and the fruit was mentioned by many aged travelers, even though the fruit of citrus trees had not evolved to the point as an foremost food staple, the fragrance of all parts of the citrus trees, together with the flowers and fruit, were desirable perfumers of rooms and were thought to repel insects.
The occurrence of citrus in Europe and Mideast were thought to have been natural occurring native trees and shrubs, but historians today believe that the ancestor of the citrus trees, Citrus medica L., was introduced by Alexander the Great from India into Greece, Turkey, and North Africa in the late 4th century Bc. The most aged citrus was called 'citron.'
There are aged clues from wall paintings in the Egyptian temple at Karnak that citrus trees had been growing there. There were other suggestions that citrus trees may have been familiar to the Jews during their exile and slavery by the Babylonians in the 6th century Bc. Even though speculations recommend that citrus trees were known and grown by the Hebrews, there is no direct mention in the Bible of citrus.
The first recording of citrus, Citrus medica L., in European history was done by Theophrastus, in 350 Bc, following the introduction of the fruit by Alexander the Great.
In early European history, writers wrote about Persian citrus, that it had a extraordinary fragrance and was thought to be a remedy for poisoning, a breath sweetener, and a repellant to moths.
Citrus was well known by the aged cultures of the Greeks and later the Romans. A gorgeous ceramic tile was found in the ruins of Pompeii after the city was destroyed by a volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Ad 79. Other mosaic tile in the ruins of a Roman villa in Carthage, North Africa, in about the 2nd century Ad, clearly showed the fruit of a citron and a lemon fruit growing on a tree branch.
Early Christian tile mosaics dating back to 300 Ad of both oranges and lemon were shown in lemon-yellow and orange colors surrounded by enchanting green leaves and freshly cut tree branches; the relics can still be seen in Istanbul, Turkey at mosques that once were churches of Emperor Constantine.
It is not known how, where, or when the exceptional present day varieties of citrus trees developed, such as the sweet orange, lemon, kumquat, lime, grapefruit, or pummelo, but there appears to be a general consensus of opinions that all these citrus developments and improvements were obtained by natural and artificial choice and natural evolution. It is well known, that the Romans were familiar with the sour orange, Citrus aurantium L. And the lemon tree, Citrus limon. After the fall of Rome to the barbarian invasions and the Muslims, the Arab states rapidly spread the plainly improving cultivars of citrus fruits and trees throughout much of North Africa, Spain, and Syria. The spread of sour orange, Citrus aurantium L., and the lemon, Citrus limon, extended the growing and planting of these trees on a worldwide scale by planting the seed, which produced citrus trees very similar to the parent trees. The Crusades conquest of the Arabs later spread citrus planting and growing throughout Europe.
The sweet orange, Citrus sinensis, appeared late in the 1400's, near the time of Christopher Columbus, who discovered America. After trade routes were closed when the Turks defeated the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453, centered in Constantinople (Istanbul), many European kings began to seek alternate, trade, sea routes to open trade by ships with China and India. The sweet orange tree introduction into Europe changed the dynamics of citrus fruit significance in the world. The travel of Portuguese explorer, Vasco de Gamma, recorded that in 1498, there were multitudes of orange trees in India, and all the fruits had a sweet taste. The new sweet orange variety, known as the "Portugal orange" caused a dramatic surge in citrus planting, much like the much later appearance of the "Washington navel orange" tree introduction into California.
The lime, Citrus latifolia, was first mentioned in European history by Sir Thomas Herbert in his book, Travels, who recorded that he found growing "oranges, lemons, and limes" off the island of Mozambique in the mid 1600's. Lime trees today are available in many cultivars.
In 1707, Spanish missions were growing oranges, fig trees, quinces, pomegranates, peaches, apricots, apples, pear trees, mulberries, pecans, and other trees according to horticultural documents.
The Mandarin orange, Citrus reticulata, was described in Chinese history in the late 1100's, but was unknown in Europe, until it was brought from a Mandarin province in China to England in 1805, where it spread rapidly throughout Europe.
The pummelo, Citrus grandis, also called the shaddock and the 'Adam's Apple' was growing in Palestine in the early 1200's and was planted and grown by the Arabs. The pummelo is believed to have an Asian origin and was planted as seed in the New World.
The grapefruit, Citrus paradisi, is believed to have arisen as a mutation from the pummelo tree. Grapefruit were so named because they grew in clusters like grapes, but most gardeners carefully them to be inedible until A.L. Duncan found an outstanding seedling grapefruit that was named Duncan grapefruit in 1892; the former tree is still alive and growing in Florida.
Christopher Columbus introduced citrus on the island of Haiti in 1493. It is believed that he brought citrus seed to be planted and grown of the sour orange, the sweet orange, citron, lemon, lime, and pummelo fruits. Records show that these citrus trees were well established in the American colonies in about 1565 at Saint Augustine, Florida, and in coastal South Carolina.
William Bartram reported in his famed botanical book, Travels, in 1773 that Henry Laurens from Charleston, South Carolina, who served as a President of the Continental Congrees, introduced "olives, limes, ginger, everbearing strawberry, red raspberry, and blue grapes" into the United States colonies after the year 1755.
William Bartram in his book, Travels, reported that near Savannah, Georgia, "it is enchanting to note that as late as 1790, oranges were cultivated in some quantity along the coast, and in that year some 3000 gallons of orange juice were exported."
Many of these wild orange groves were seen by the early American explorer, William Bartram, according to his book, Travels, in 1773, while traveling down the Saint John's River in Florida. Bartram mistakenly thought these orange trees were native to Florida; however, they were established centuries earlier by the Spanish explorers.
The citrus manufactures began rapidly developing in 1821 when the Spanish gave up their territories and its many orange groves to the United States. Wild orange tree groves were top-worked with improved cultivars and residents traveling to Florida realized how refreshing orange juice tasted; thus began the shipments of oranges, grapefruit, limes, and lemons that were sent to Philadelphia and New York by railway and ships in the 1880's.
Citrus plantings were extensively done in California by the Spanish missionaries; however, the market manufactures began to grow with the 1849 Gold Rush boom, and efforts to contribute the miners from San Francisco with citrus fruit were successful. The completion of the Transcontinental Railway further stimulated the citrus industry, since citrus could be rapidly sent to eastern markets. Later improvements of refrigeration helped to increase citrus growing and planting, mainly oranges, lemons, and limes throughout the world in 1889.
Florida at first dominated citrus yield in the United States, but because of some devastating freezes in 1894 and 1899, Satsuma orange trees were virtually wiped out in the Gulf States. Thousands of acres of Satsuma orange trees were wiped out in Alabama, Texas, and Louisiana in the hard freeze of 1916; thus the citrus yield of the United States began to shift from Florida to California.
Citrus is marketed throughout the world as a beneficial condition fruit that contains Vitamin C and numerous other vitamins and minerals in orange and citrus products lime marmalade, fresh fruit, and frosty and hot-pack citrus juice concentrates.
Copyright 2006 Patrick Malcolm
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I. Galvanic Guitar Tone: Pickups and Strings
There are basically two types of pickups for Galvanic guitars: singular coils and humbuckers; and they sound thoroughly different. singular coils tend to be softer and brighter (and electrical interference will cause them to hum); humbuckers tend to be louder and have much stronger midrange and bass response (and they don't hum). In addition, singular coils tend to have better clarity than humbuckers when played clean, but humbuckers tend to work better with overdrive or distortion (because they are more powerful). singular coils also tend to sound better in the neck position, and humbuckers tend to sound better in the bridge position (again because of the midrange response and the supplementary power).
There are a amount of pickups marketed as singular coils that don't hum, together with Fender's Vintage Noiseless pickups and Lace Sensor's "Holy Grail" pickups. For the most part, those types of pickups are certainly tiny, consuming sounding humbuckers. They are made to look like singular coils by stacking the two coils on top of each other, instead of laying them side by side. No matter what anything tells you the only thing that certainly sounds like a singular coil pickup is a singular coil pickup.
I think a better way to solve the hum issue is to get a reverse wound reverse polarity (rwrp) middle pickup (Fender practice Shop Fat 50's have a rwrp middle pickup). That way, if you have a Stratocaster, for example, you will have singular coil tone in positions 1, 3 and 5, but you will have no hum in positions 2 and 4. Alternatively, if you have a Les Paul, you could get humbuckers that allow you to split the coils, so that you can convert each humbucker to a singular coil with the flip of a switch (Seymour Duncan Jb Model humbuckers have four conductor leads, so you can use them with a coil splitting switch). Either way, you can get the best of both worlds.
Among singular coil pickups and humbuckers, there are many variations in how they are constructed and how they sound. Basically, a pickup is a row of magnets wrapped in copper wire. So changes in the magnets and the wire work on the sound. Alnico V magnets are commonly used in singular coil pickups, like Fender's Texas special pickups for Stratocasters and Telecasters; they are stronger magnets and have a sharper sound. Alnico Ii magnets are more tasteless in humbuckers, like Gibson's superior '57 pickups; they are softer magnets and they have a smoother tone.
As for the copper wire, "overwound" pickups tend to sound louder and have more midrange and bass; pickups with less windings tend to sound softer and brighter. One of the reasons humbuckers sound the way they do is because it takes more wire to wrap the two coils. The thickness of the wiring and the type of insulation that is used are supplementary factors that work on the sound (e.g. Fender's early Strat pickups had Formvar insulation instead of enamel; insulating them that way gave them a clearer tone). Today most humbuckers are also wax potted so they won't squeal at high gain, but the wax potting hurts the clarity a miniature too (Gibson's contemporary Burstbucker pickups and Seymour Duncan's Seth Lovers attempt to reproduce the clearer tone of early humbuckers by eliminating the wax potting).
Another thing to reconsider with singular coils is how the building will work on the way the pickup responds to electrical interference. You may love the way a big, fat singular coil like a Gibson p90 sounds, but you may also find the extra wiring that makes the pickup sound so good makes it hum louder too. So there is a trade off if you like that sound (more wire = louder, fatter sound = more hum).
The other original factor in determining the tone of an Galvanic guitar is the strings. Galvanic guitar strings are made of nickel and steel. The more nickel, the warmer the sound; the more steel, the brighter and louder the strings sound. Also, the thicker the strings the more volume they will produce. That's why some players like to use heavy strings; they have more tone. If you try them and find they are too hard to play, you can all the time tune down a half step or more to compensate.
Keep in mind though the nickel is only on the wound strings. The thinner, higher pitch strings are all steel. Also, with the wound strings, it's not just the nickel content that determines the tone, it's also the shape of the windings. Roundwound strings are brighter, but flatwound strings have much more bass response, and so- called "rollerwound" strings, like Ghs favorite "Nickel Rockers," have a tone that is somewhere in between the two (i.e. They sound darker than roundwounds).
So what you can do by pairing different pickups with different strings is try to get a nicer, balanced tone from the guitar. For example, you might find that rollerwound strings go well with brighter, vintage style singular coils, like Fender practice Shop '54's. But the same strings would probably be way too dark for a Gibson Les Paul adequate with '57 Classics or Burstbuckers (i.e. Roundwound strings would sound better). On the other hand, if your Gibson is something like an Es-175 with the same superior humbuckers, and you are finding for a level jazz tone, you'll probably like flatwounds better.
Here are some suggested combinations of strings / pickups / amplifiers / speakers that I think work well:
1. Roundwound Strings / Humbucker Pickups / Tube Amp. (6l6 tubes) / 15" Jbl Speaker (clean sound)
2. Rollerwound Strings / singular Coil Pickups / Tube Amp. (6l6 tubes) / 10" Jensen Speakers (blues tone)
3. Roundwound Strings / Humbucker Pickups / Tube Amp (el34 tubes) / 12" Celestion Speakers (distorted rock and roll sound)
4. Flatwound Strings / Humbucker Pickups / Solid State Amp. / Eminence Woofer (jazz tone)
It's all about the aggregate and the way the components work together. If you put flatwounds on a Gibson and plug in to a Polytone, you'll see why so many jazzers love those amps. But if you try the same amp with a Stratocaster and a set of roundwounds, you'll wonder why anything would ever buy a Polytone. An amp that sounds good with one guitar may sound terrible with someone else guitar. And the presume may have nothing to do with the amp. The pickups and strings on the guitar may just not be a good match for the components of the amp.
Another thing to reconsider is the wiring harness (i.e. The tone and volume controls, and the pickup selector) inside the guitar. You can swap out cheap pickups to improve the tone of your guitar, but you won't be able to get the most out of the convert if you have a cheap, low capability wiring harness connecting the pickups to the yield jack. The harness consists of two or four potentiometers, one or two capacitors, a switch and the wiring connecting them all together (and any shielding inside the control cavity or colse to the wires). The best components are Us-made Cts pots, Sprague caps, Switchcraft switches and jacks, etc. The controls sell out volume or treble by introducing resistance and capacitance into the circuit. If the capability isn't there, the tone will be negatively affected even when the controls are turned all the way up; and the pickups may hum more or less depending upon how well the harness is shielded. So if you are replacing your pickups to improve the sound, it commonly makes sense to also check the wiring and see if it needs to be upgraded or supplementary shielding needs to be added.
And, last but not least, any result pedals you use between the guitar and the amplifier will also tend to dominate the final tone. Some pedals are more transparent than others, but obviously if you rely heavily on pedals for the tone you want, then the type of pickups and strings you use will have less of an effect.
Ii. Galvanic Guitar Tone: Speakers
There are basically three types of vintage speakers: (1) Jensen speakers, (2) Jbl and Electrovoice drivers, and (3) Celestion speakers.
Jensen Speakers
Alnico Jensen speakers came suitable in Fender tweed amplifiers in the 50's, together with the paramount Tweed Bassman, which had four (4) Jensen P10R speakers (Jensen labeled alnico speakers with a "P" and ceramic speakers with a "C"; the "10" refers to the speaker size (10") and "R" means the speaker is low powered, while "N" would refer to a higher powered speaker). Ceramic Jensen speakers are sometimes related with the later Fender tolex years, but the alnico speakers were included in those amps too. If you have ever heard anything talk of an "American" sounding speaker, it's probably the tone of Fender (i.e. The tone of Jensen speakers in an amp powered by 6l6 or 6v6 tubes) that they are referring to. Jensens are commonly consuming sounding speakers (they have smaller voice coils and resonance frequencies colse to 100 Hz), and they have a very clear tone with great sensitivity. As a result, they work especially well with singular coil pickups, like those found in a Fender Stratocaster.
The original Jensen speakers were made in the United States, but the current re-issues that Fender is putting in its vintage reissue amplifiers now are made in Italy. Perfect Jensen clones are also made by Weber and Eminence. The Webers are called the "Vintage Series" and the Eminence speakers contain the 10" alnico Legend 102, as well as the higher powered "Patriot Series" speakers. To my ear, the Italian reissues sound good at low volume, but the Webers sound better at full volume, and they handle overdrive better as well.
Jbl and Electro Voice
Jbl and Electro Voice speakers are supplementary important American speakers. Unlike Jensens, Jbl's and Ev's are very excellent sounding (they have large voice coils and resonance frequencies colse to 50 Hz), and can handle a lot of volume. The Jbl's were well known for their aluminum dust covers, and some of the early Ev's came that way too (I think the purpose of the aluminum was to help expand the frequency response). The 12" Jbl d120f's were famously paired with the Fender Twin Reverb for blues and jazz. The 15" Jbl d130f was also a great speaker for the Vibroverb. Electro Voice speakers are mostly favorite with heavy metal players. The original Mesa Boogie amplifiers were known for having a singular Evm 12L speaker.
Jbl and Electro Voice speakers were both made in the United States. The Electro Voice speakers are still available, but the Jbl's are no longer being made. Fortunately, Eminence makes a speaker called the "Commonwealth," which is an Perfect copy of the Jbl e120 (12") and e130 (15") speakers (those are the ceramic magnet versions of the d120 and d130 speakers). Weber also makes a speaker called the "California," that sounds similar to a Jbl, and someone else called the "Michigan," that sounds similar to the Electro Voice. If you want bullet proof reliability at high volume, you cannot go wrong with a Jbl or Ev speaker. They weigh a ton but they can handle a lot of power. Also, they handle bass sounds well and furnish a level treble tone that is especially well excellent for guitars with humbuckers, like the Gibson Les Paul and Es-335.
Another consuming spinoff of the Jbl / Ev sound is provided by the Eminence line of woofers, together with the lower powered Alpha and Beta speakers, and the high powered Delta (the Delta Pro 12A is marketed as similar to an Ev 12L). Jazz amplifiers like Polytone and Evans (and Raezer's Edge cabinets) use Eminence woofers for a level solid state jazz tone. The Alpha's have better sensitivity and sound like the old Polytone speakers, while the Delta's have a more contemporary tone with a strong bass response that will not disort, even at high volume. In my opinion, they sound particularly good with humbuckers and flatwound strings.
Celestion Speakers
Celestion speakers are paramount for their inclusion in superior British amplifiers like the Vox Ac30 and assorted Marshall amplifiers, together with the 2x12 "Bluesbreaker." If you have ever heard anything talk of a "British" sounding speaker, it is probably the sound of a Marshall or Vox amplifier (i.e. El84 or el34 tubes and Celestion speakers) that they are referring to. In terms of tone and construction, Celestions are in between the Jensens and the Jbl / Ev's. They are not as consuming as the Jensens, nor as excellent as the Ev's (they have resonance frequencies colse to 75 Hz; and better midrange response); and they are made with British cones and voice coils that are not as small as the Jensens or as big as the Jbl's. Not surprisingly, Celestions tend to sound well with both singular coils and humbuckers, especially if you play with a lot of distortion.
The only alnico Celestion is the "Alnico Blue." That speaker is the 12" speaker that came in the Vox Ac30. It is commonly regarded as one of the best speakers you can buy, but it is also one of the most expensive speakers you can buy, and it can only handle 15 watts. The rest of the Celestion line, together with the 25 watt, G12M "Greenback," are ceramic magnet speakers, mostly 12" in size, and all known for their Perfect rock tones. My favorites are the Greenbacks. If you need more power handling, the G12-65 is also a great sounding speaker. Like they say in the ad, the sound of Celestion is the sound of rock and roll.
Although Celestions were originally made in England, the current reissues are being made in China (like the Italian Jensens, the Chinese Celestions sound pretty good to my ear). In addition, Weber makes some great "British Series" Celestion clones, together with the "Blue Pup," which is a copy of the Alnico Blue (except the Blue Pup comes in all different sizes, doesn't cost as much, and can handle much more power). And Eminence has the Legend Gb-12 Greenback clone, as well as a new line of Perfect "Red Coat" speakers that are Celestion clones too. The "Red Fang" is a copy of the Alnico Blue, and the "Private Jack" is someone else copy of the Greenback. Both those speakers also sound great, cost less and handle more power. And, of course, the Webers and the Eminence speakers are made in the Usa.
In my opinion, the speakers are the original thing that conclude the tone of an Galvanic guitar. The tone starts with the strings, and depends upon Either they are nickel or steel, roundwound or flatwound, heavy or light. Then the tone is governed by the pickups, which could be singular coils or humbuckers, underwound our overwound, alnico V or alnico Ii. If you put a chain of effects between the guitar and the amp, the sound of the effects tends to dominate the tone and override all else. Otherwise, the tone is then thought about by the type of amp you have (solid state or tubes, and the type of tubes) and how you set the dials (bass, mid, treble, expert volume, etc). But what has the biggest work on is the speakers (the type of cone, the magnet and the size of the speaker and voice coil). The speakers are the last link in the chain; the speakers are what certainly move the air to furnish the sound you hear.
If you have a guitar with singular coil pickups, you can't go wrong with Jensen style speakers. singular coils have an extended treble response and great clarity; and Jensen's are Perfect for capturing that tone. If your guitar has humbuckers and you want a smooth, jazzy clean tone or a speaker that has a big bass sound for heavy metal distortion, then Jbl or Electrovoice speakers will make you happy. Any of those American speakers will work well with American power tubes, like 6l6 or 6v6's. If you don't like the sound of American speakers, Either because the Jensens are too consuming or the Jbl's and Ev's are too bassy, then Celestion likely has a speaker you'll like. Celestions have the best midrange response; the tone of Britain is less "scooped" (i.e. More even in the treble, bass and midrange) than American style speakers. Not surprisingly, British speakers will pair well with British tubes, like El34's or El84's.
Yet someone else thing to reconsider is mixing and matching different speakers in a multi-speaker amplifier. For example, if you have a Super Reverb or Bassman, which has 4 x 10" speakers, you can put two consuming sounding Jensens on top (like Weber 10A100's or Jensen P10r's); and then try to balance the sound with two bassier sounding speakers on the lowest (like Weber10A150's or Jensen P10n's). someone else favorite set up is to have a Celestion G12M on one side and a G12H on the other side of a Marshall Bluesbreaker 2 x 12 amp.
Iii. Galvanic Guitar Tone: Vacuum Tubes
Changing the vacum tubes in your guitar amplifier can convert the tone just as much as changing the speakers. Many population claim the best 12ax7 preamp tubes and 6l6 power tubes are the American made Rca tubes that were produced in the 1950's and 60's, like the short, ribbed plate Rca 12ax7 and the black plate Rca 6l6Gc, as well as the European made Mullard Ecc83. Those tubes do sound great but they are expensive and dwindling in supply, since they are no longer being made. Fortunately, there are also a amount of high capability current yield tubes that are available to upgrade the tone of your amplifier.
12Ax7 Tubes
There are five (5) types of 12ax7 tubes being made today, and the same tube is often sold under manifold different labels. If you want to know what you are buying, the best thing you can do is become familiar with the building of the different types, so you can tell which is which regardless of the label each is being sold under.
Three (3) of the five tube types have a short, fat plate structure where the two plates are so close together you can't see the space in between them. The other two (2) tubes are made more like the way the Rca 12ax7's and Mullard Ecc83's were constructed in the 60's. They have two thin plates that are separated, so you can see the space between them, and the plates have a ribbed imprint on them that looks like a ladder.
Sovtek is the original Oem victualer of preamp tubes today. Sovtek tubes are made in Russia. As you can see above, they have a spacer below the short, fat plates, a gap between the plates and the second upper spacer, and a "dimple" getter over the top. If you see a tube that looks like this, it's a Sovtek, regardless of the label. Sometimes they are marked as Sovtek 12Ax7's but you also see them marked as Groove Tubes 12Ax7-R's and Fender 12Ax7's. You will also see them marked 12Ax7 Wa, Wb or Wc. I'm told the Wb version has a miniature more gain and the Wc version is a miniature quieter. Regardless, these tubes all have an edgy (bright) tone that is favorite with Fender amp owners.
The second tasteless Oem tube out there is the Chinese Shuguang 12Ax7 (Groove Tubes also sells this tube as the 12Ax7C; Tube Amp physician has also sold this tube as a Tad 7025; and it has also been sold by Mesa Boogie). The Chinese 12ax7's are constructed with short, fat plates, like the Sovteks, but they have an extra spacer above the tubes, a big nickel colored brace connecting the plates, and a "halo" getter on top. Again, if you see a tube made like this, it's a Chinese tube, regardless of Either it has Groove Tubes or Mesa Boogie or Tad written on the glass. These tubes have a warmer tone than the Sovteks and more gain (volume). As a result, they work well in high gain amps.
The third Oem tube is the European Jj Ecc83 (Ecc83 is the British name for a 12Ax7; Jj's are made in the Slovak Republic). They are constructed with short, fat plates and a halo getter, like the Shuguangs, but they have only two spacers and a metal disk above the plates that is related to the getter. You may see these sold as Groove Tubes Ecc83's but the label doesn't matter; they are still Jj Ecc83's. As for the sound, they have a more linear tone than the Sovteks or the Shuguangs, and a more important midrange. Personally, I think they sound best with Marshall or Vox amps that run El34 or El84 power tubes.
If you want an nicer, vintage style clean tone or slightly distorted blues tone, the newer tubes Sovtek makes for Electro-Harmonix, Svetlana and Tung Sol are better choices. Each of those tubes has thinner plates that are separated, so you can see the space between them just like the original Rca 12ax7's. To my ear, the Electro-Harmonix 12Ax7 is the best sounding lower priced 12ax7 out there (the Svetlana 12Ax7 looks like the same tube, but I've never tried one). If you don't mind spending a miniature more, I think the Tung Sol 12Ax7 "reissue" is even better (unlike the Electro-Harmonix version, the Tung Sol has a "halo" getter, just like the Rca). If you want excellent tube with a real nice American tone, I'd suggest the Tung Sol 12Ax7.
The second option for a more vintage sounding preamp tubes is the long plate tubes Sovtek makes under its own name as the 12Ax7Lp (the "lp" stands for "long plate"), and the tube Sovtek sells as the Mullard 12Ax7 "reissue." The two tubes look identical, except for the name, but the capability of the Mullards is much better, I think.
In expanding to Sovtek, Groove Tubes also sells a Us-made 12Ax7M, and it looks like Tad is now selling this tube as their new Tad 7025. Also Jj has a new long plate tube called the Jj Ecc803.
All of these tubes have long, thin plates that are separated, so you can see the space between them just like the original Mullard Ecc83's. To my ear, these vintage style tubes tend to have a fairly flat eq, which I join together with a more European sound, as opposed the Tung Sol's, which accentuate the highs and lows more and have more of an American tone.
The problem with these long plate tubes is they tend not to do well in high gain amps and combo amps, if they are not very well made. The only one I have found to be trustworthy in a guitar amp is the Mullard 12ax7 reissue. It costs a miniature more, but if you want a excellent tube that has more of a European tone, that's the one I'd recommend.
Another thing to reconsider is the location in the amplifier of the preamp tube you are replacing. The preamp tube that is located the furthest away from the power tubes will commonly have the many result on the tone of the amp; and the preamp tubes that are closer to the power tubes will have the least result on the tone. So you could put a excellent Tung Sol or Mullard in V1, but then a less expensive Jj or a Chinese tube might make more sense in V2. Even if you find a long plate too noisy for any of those positions, a long plate tube might still make a good phase inverter tube for the V3 position (or whichever position is closest to the power tubes).
6l6 Tubes
6l6 power tubes not only have different size plates, they also come in different size bottles. There are basically three (3) types. The small bottle "stubbies" modeled after the original Tung Sol 5881, the tall bottles based on the original Sylvania 6l6Gc Str, and the clear tops that have the side getter building of the paramount black plate Rca 6l6Gc.
The most tasteless Oem 6l6 is the Sovtek 5881Wxt, which is sort of an anomaly. The Sovtek is a short plate tube in a tall bottle. It's called a 5881 but it's certainly a 6l6. It can handle high voltages like the other 6l6's but it has the lower yield of a 5881. And you will see it branded both ways. Sovtek calls it the 5881Wxt but Groove Tubes sells it as a 6l6Gc, Fender calls it a 6l6Gc, and a Mesa Boogie sells it as a 6l6Gc Str. Regardless of the name, the Sovtek is a very reliable, reasonable tube, but it doesn't have the best tone.
The only true small bottle 5881 currently in yield is the Tung Sol 5881 reissue that is also made by Sovtek. Like the Sovtek 5881Wxt, the Tung Sol has lower yield than most 6l6's. But when it comes to tone, there is no comparison. The tone of the Tung Sol is head and shoulders above the 5881Wxt. The problem is, unlike the Sovtek, the Tung Sol apparently cannot handle the high voltage of most contemporary tube amps. As a result, most population finding to upgrade the suitable Sovtek 5881Wxt will do better with a 6l6 tall bottle or one of the new clear tops.
In expanding to the Tung Sol, Sovtek also has a excellent tall bottle 6l6 called the Sovtek 5881Wxt+ (not the 5881Wxt, the 588Wxt"+", which is a very different animal) and the Electro-Harmonix 6l6Eh (near as I can tell, the Wxt+ and the 6l6Eh are the same). Both the 5881Wxt+ and the 6l6Eh have longer plates, more volume and a much nicer tone - with more harmonic complexity - than the Sovtek 5881Wxt.
The top rated 6l6 tall bottle is probably the Sed 6l6. Sed a/k/a "Winged C" is the enterprise that was previously known as "Svetlana." The Sed is a great tube with a brighter, more detailed tone, but it has a big downside, and that is that it typically costs about twice as much as all of these other tubes.
The "Svetlana" brand name is now owned by Sovtek. In fact, Sovtek makes a copy of the Sed "Winged C" 6l6 which is sold as the Svetlana 6l6. The Sed and the Sovtek Svetlana are not the same tube (the getters are different), and they don't have exactly the same tone (the Svetlana is not quite as bright). But the two tubes are very similar, and the Svetlana costs roughly half as much.
In expanding to the Sed and the Sovteks, there are two other 6l6's that have a miniature different tone but are also a big revision over the suitable 5881Wxt. Jj makes a tall bottle Jj 6l6 that has a unique plate structure and a excellent clean sound. Like the Sed, the Jj has been colse to a long time and has enjoyed necessary popularity. More recently, Tube Amp physician started selling a Chinese Tad 6l6Gc Str that has become very popular. I think the Tad sounds more like the Jj than the Sed or the Sovteks.
You certainly can't go wrong with any of these tall bottles. If you like big and beefy, try the Jj or the Tad. If you want a brighter tone with more detail, go for the Sed or the Svetlana. If you would rather have something with a miniature flatter eq and smoother sound, I'd suggest the Electro-Harmonix 6l6Eh or the Sovtek 5881Wxt+. I especially like level overdrive tone of the 6l6Eh and 5881Wxt+ in a expert volume amp.
But if what you want is the closest thing to the original Rca 6l6 clear top, there are a amount of other 6l6 tubes you may also want to give a listen to. Groove Tubes makes a clear top Gt 6l6Ge, Sovtek has a clear top Tung Sol 6l6Gc Str and Tube Amp physician also sells a clear top Chinese made Tad 6l6Wgc Str. These are long plate, high yield tubes, but they come in medium size bottles; and they have the clear top, side getter building of the original Rca and Ge 6l6's. The Tad and Tung Sol versions have the "black plates" the Rca tubes had; and the Groove Tubes version is mostly American made. But the tube with the best tone is right on the Tad 6l6Wgc Str. The Tad is a nice, warm tube with a sweet, silky high end. To me, it is the Perfect option for a vintage series Fender amp, like the Super Reverb.
Keep in mind the shop for vacum tubes is constantly changing. It used to be that the Jj Ecc83's and Sed "Winged C" 6l6's were the best tubes available. But then Sovtek was bought out by New Sensor and started working with Electro Harmonix to found new tube designs. Chinese tubes were notoriously cheap, but then Tube Amp physician and Groove Tubes started working with them to found some top capability glass.
It also used to be that you needed to get tubes from a reseller who tested them thoroughly because they were notoriously unreliable from the factory. But now Sovtek, for example, seems to be testing their own tubes more and selling the good ones under brand names like "Tung Sol" or "Mullard." The other thing the tube manufacturers are doing now is selling "gold pin" versions of their tubes (often for twice the price of the quarterly versions). I think it's worth it to buy the brand name versions, especially if you are buying direct from the manufacturer, but I don't think the gold pins are worth twice the price.
In my opinion, there is no one tube that sounds best, it all depends upon what you like and the other components you are using.
Ben L. Fernandez
electric Guitar Tone: Pickups, Strings, Speakers and TubesAs the eruption grew more violent, the earthquakes grew stronger as written by Pliny the Younger: “But that night the shaking grew much stronger; population thought it was an upheaval, not just a tremor. My mother burst into my room and I got up. I said she should rest, and I would rouse her (sc. If need be). We sat out on a small terrace between the house and the sea. I sent for a volume of Livy (Titius Livius (59 B.C.-A.D. 17)); I read and even took notes from where I had left off, as if it were a moment of free time; I hardly know whether to call it bravery, or foolhardiness (I was seventeen at the time). Up comes a friend of my uncle's, recently arrived from Spain. When he sees my mother and me sitting there, and me even reading a book, he scolds her for her calm and me for my lack of concern. But I kept on with my book.”[45]
Yet despite the terror in Pompeii and Stabiae, Herculaneum remained relatively unscathed. The town, being “upwind” of the volcano was coated only in a light layer of ash – 8 inches compared to the 12 feet that covered Pompeii.[46] however things were soon to be distinct as the old day ended and the new day dawned. At about 11:30 Pm the situation began to convert “when the lower levels of [Vesuvius’] subterranean magma chamber, the gas-rich, evaporative material that had sustained the eruption cloud”[47] were reaching the point of depletion, which occurred about one-and-a-half hours later.
By midnight, the volcanic cloud “reached practically 19 miles into the sky, [as the volcano was ejecting 150,000 tons of lapilli and ash per second][48] and torrents of lava [began to pour down] Vesuvius[49] [as magma violently tore rocks away from the side of the vent, creating a wide ‘caldera’].”[50] “Then came a smell of sulfur, announcing the flames…”[51] “It grew lighter, though that seemed not a return of day, but a sign that the fire was approaching. The fire itself positively stopped some distance away, but darkness and ashes came again, a great weight of them. We stood up and shook the ash off again and again, otherwise we would have been covered with it and crushed by the weight. I might boast that no groan escaped me in such perils, no cowardly word, but that I believed that I was perishing with the world, and the world with me, which was a great consolation for death.”[52] Back where Pliny the Elder was, “…the flames themselves, [while] sending others into flight… [revived] him. Supported by two small slaves he stood up, and immediately collapsed. As I understand it, his breathing was obstructed by the dust-laden air, and his innards, which were never strong and often blocked or upset, plainly shut down,” Pliny the Younger wrote.[53]
Lapilli and ash poured down at a rate of about 6 inches per hour. anywhere southeast of the volcano was covered in volcanic debris driven by the strong northwest winds. Roofs collapsed killing population sheltering indoors. Others fleeing straight through the streets were “struck down by rocks, [tephra], falling tiles [and slates] or collapsing masonry”[54] while still others, standing on the shores of the Bay of Naples desperately tried to protect themselves with their hands, cloaks, and other makeshift shields as “a group of priests… abandoned their… meal of fish and eggs…; some were struck down when a portico collapsed on top of them, while most others were asphyxiated in a building where they sought shelter.”[55] Some screamed in terror as they attempted to flee the deadly storm of falling tephra, rocks, and ash while the injured writhed in pain. With all hope lost, a mother made a feeble exertion to protect her child with her body. It was to no avail.
An hour later, at 1:00 Am on August 25, the top of Vesuvius was “blown off”[56] in a violent explosion. The “volcanic column” swiftly collapsed “in an avalanche of boiling gases, pumice and rocks”[57] sending a lethal 900°F pyrrhic cloud (nuée ardente) into Herculaneum, the first of six surges to charge the town, killing all remaining inhabitants, practically all of whom were alive up to this point. It killed adults, some still clutching money, jewelry and other valuables, along with children and babies, and the gladiators who had been training at the amphitheater, within a fraction of a second. About 80 population cowered in a dozen beachfront chambers and storerooms and close to 300 hid under the vaulted archways of the town’s “public baths overlooking the sea”[58] – children tightly clutching their parents and brothers and sisters keeping tightly onto each other, fearful of the molten lava and boiling mud that was pouring out from Vesuvius.
Elsewhere on a beach just outside of Herculaneum, Lupercus Augusti, an imperial slave, clutched a bronze seal with his name and status, as he stood among a amount of population including a Roman soldier dressed in armor, a young man whose arm was draped around his girlfriend to comfort her, aristocratic women wearing their jewelry, population lying on the sand to get a few moments of sleep, and small clustered groups of population in conference as they watched the “torrents of hot mud [that] were spewing out of Mt. Vesuvius.”[59] All were “killed abruptly by thermal shock” without time to “display… self-protective reaction or agony contortions [or] any reaction” to their impending deaths.[60] Some were sent flying into a tangled, heap of bodies from the force of the pyrrhic cloud. “Even population sheltered from the direct impact” perished.[61] Within seconds a pyroclastic flow of glowing lava, rock, and ash covered the resort town.
Additional surges followed from 1:00 Am-6:00 Am with a second pyrrhic cloud hitting Herculaneum at 2:00 Am, and a third at 5:30 Am, after deflecting off the walls built to protect Pompeii from a soldiery attack. An hour later, a small pyrrhic cloud reached Pompeii, “asphyxiating many who “breathed in [its] hot gas and incandescent ash.”[62] Among the victims was dog that had been “chained to a post and struggled for hours, ‘scrabbling upward as stones filled [the area]’ before succumbing… – ‘suffocating when it reached the end of its leash’”[63] and an additional one dog that merely curled up and fell into an eternal sleep with slight sign of suffering. Just north of Pompeii, a slave whose flight was hindered by a chain clamped to his leg and an additional one man who likely tried to assist, also perished, overcome by the volcano’s “ash and toxic gases” as they progressed up a dirt road.[64] It was followed by any large earthquakes. By this time, “about [8 feet] of hot ash lay in the [town’s] streets.[65] It was the start of the volcano’s deadliest phase as “heavier magma from deeper down made its way to the surface.”[66]
As Vesuvius entered its deadliest phase, a group of 13 Pompeiians who had been hunkered down for the last 12 hours in a small portico that had been converted into a wine cellar, decided to exertion an flee when they noticed that it was becoming difficult to breathe. Initially, the group, which among them, included a pregnant woman and a young boy, had decided to ride out the eruption in this shelter, nicknamed, “The House of the Fugitives.”[67] While a rich man brought a meticulously packed wicker basket of silver dinnerware, others brought items for survival – amphorae (two-handled jugs) of water, ceramic lamps, and walnuts.
As they climbed the stairs, proceeding in a single file, the group came upon an endless wall of ash. Upon discovering that their security had been thoroughly buried, they faced two choices – return to the wine cellar and suffocate gently or take a chance to reach fresh air. The task though was impossible. As they held their breaths and struggled and groped their way up the stairs, they collapsed “one after the other”[68] and suffocated in the opaque endless wall of volcanic ash. Out of the group, only one man made it close to the roof – but he too, collapsed and died without reaching fresh air.
It was about this time that the population of Misenum decided to flee. With the earthquakes growing more violent, every person decided to leave as recorded by the teenaged witness: “Now the day begins, with a still hesitant and practically lazy dawn. All around us structure are shaken. We are in the open, but it is only a small area and we are afraid, nay certain, that there will be a collapse. We decided to leave the town finally; a dazed crowd follows us, preferring our plan to their own (this is what passes for wisdom in a panic). Their numbers are so large that they slow our departure, and then sweep us along. We stopped once we had left the structure behind us.”[69]
Then at 7:30 Am, a huge intense pyroclastic surge ranging from 750°F-1475°F blasted straight through Pompeii’s walls “like a red-hot sandstorm… [that swept away] the nine-foot thickness of pumice that had previously fallen.”[70] It rolled into Pompeii abruptly extinguishing all remaining life, among them a man who was resigned to his fate and “seemed to be sleeping, his head resting peacefully on his forearm [with] his eyes closed, [others with ‘agonized facial expressions’],[71] [the high-class prostitute], a beggar [who] lay beside the sack in which he had been collecting alms; on his feet were a pair of incongruously elegant sandals, no doubt a gift from some wealthy benefactor, a servant… as he [tried to lead] a mother and her two sons toward safety; in his hand was the bag in which he had salvaged provisions from the wreckage of the household, [an] private [who] had sought refuge by climbing a tree… with the snapped field to which he had been clinging still firmly gripped between his legs, and a “determined private [who] had tried to fight his way out; he used an axe to cut his way successively straight through [a] building’s partition walls, only to meet his fate when he came up against an impenetrable fence of lava,”[72] and a house of 12 who had sat in the darkness of their house hearing the “groans of the dying and shrieks of the terrified, noises from the mountain, [and] the sound of roofs collapsing” after their initial exertion to flee straight through the falling lapilli had failed.[73] It was swiftly followed by “a pyroclastic flow of gas, ash, and rock” that took about 6 minutes to reach the town from the lip of Vesuvius’ crater as it “rolled, hugging the ground.” “Walls were thrown down, columns toppled, [tops of houses were sheared off], tiles shot… [through] the streets [and] …wooden timbers, doors and shutters [were carbonized].”[74] This surge was followed by subsequent surges throughout the day that also left “Stabiae and Oplontis buried in ash and pumice.”[75] By 8:00 Am Herculaneum and Pompeii lay in deathly silence. Herculaneum was buried under 65 feet of pyroclastic deposits, Stabiae under between 9-20 feet of ash and pumice, and Pompeii under 9 feet of pumice, an additional one 6-10 feet of pyroclastic deposits, and about 21 feet of ash.
“…it buried two entire cities, Herculaneum and Pompeii; the latter place while its populace was seated in the theatre. Indeed, the amount of dust, taken all together, was so great that some of it reached Africa and Syria and Egypt, and it also reached Rome, filling the air overhead and darkening the sun. There, too, no slight fear was occasioned, that lasted for any days, since the population did not know and could not imagine what had happened, but, like those close at hand, believed that the whole world was being turned upside down, that the sun was disappearing into the earth and that the earth was being lifted to the sky,” Dio Cassius wrote,[76] while Roman Poet Marcus Valerius Martialis (c. A.D. 40-A.D. 104) wrote in Epigram 4:44 in A.D. 91, “Observe Vesuvius. Not long ago it was covered with the grapevine’s green shade, and a famous grape wet, nay drowned the vats here. Bacchus loved the shoulders of this mountain more than the hills of Nysa [his birthplace], satyrs used to join their dances here. Here was a haunt of Venus, more pleasant than Lacedaemon to her, here was a place where Hercules left his name. It all lies buried by flames and mournful ash. Even the gods regret that their powers extended to this.”[77]
Furthermore, “as the dismissal of magma cracked and collapsed the rocks overlying [the volcano’s] emptied chambers… shocks rippled across the bay. The sea was sucked back and hurled at the beaches in seismic [tsunamis].”[78] “Strange things” began to happen, Pliny the Younger wrote. “Many strange things happened to us there, and we had much to fear. The carts that we had ordered brought were exciting in opposite directions, though the ground was perfectly flat, and they wouldn't stay in place even with their wheels blocked by stones. In addition, it seemed as though the sea was being sucked backwards, as if it were being pushed back by the shaking of the land. positively the shore moved outwards, and many sea creatures were left on dry sand. Behind us were frightening dark clouds, rent by lightning twisted and hurled, chance to relate huge figures of flame. These were like lightning, but bigger. At that point the Spanish friend urged us strongly: ‘If your brother and uncle is alive, he wants you to be safe. If he has perished, he wanted you to survive him. So why are you reluctant to escape?’ We responded that we would not look to our own protection as long as we were uncertain about his. Waiting no longer, he took himself off from the danger at a mad pace. It wasn't long thereafter that the cloud stretched down to the ground and covered the sea. It girdled Capri and made it vanish, it hid Misenum's promontory. Then my mother began to beg and urge and order me to flee however I might, saying that a young man could make it, that she, weighed down in years and body, would die happy if she escaped being the cause of my death. I replied that I wouldn't save myself without her, and then I took her hand and made her walk a slight faster. She obeyed with difficulty, and blamed herself for delaying me.
Now came the dust, though still thinly. I look back: a dense cloud looms behind us, following us like a flood poured across the land. ‘Let us turn aside while we can still see, lest we be knocked over in the road and crushed by the crowd of our companions.’ We had scarcely sat down when a darkness came that was not like a moonless or cloudy night, but more like the black of fulfilled, and unlighted rooms. You could hear women lamenting, children crying, men shouting. Some were calling for parents, others for children or spouses; they could only recognize them by their voices. Some bemoaned their own lot, others that of their near and dear. There were some so afraid of death that they prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the gods, and even more believed that there were no gods any longer and that this was one last unending night for the world. Nor were we without population who magnified real dangers with fictitious horrors. Some announced that one or an additional one part of Misenum had collapsed or burned; lies, but they found believers.”[79]
Subsequently, when the eruption ended and the dark volcanic cloud began to dissipate at about 1:00 Pm, Pliny the Younger wrote, “At last the cloud thinned out and dwindled to no more than smoke or fog. Soon there was real daylight. The sun was even shining, though with the lurid glow it has after an eclipse. The sight that met our still terrified eyes was a changed world, buried in ash like snow. We returned to Misenum and took care of our bodily needs, but spent the night dangling between hope and fear. Fear was the stronger, for the earth was still quaking and a amount of population who had gone mad were mocking the evils that had happened to them and others with terrific prognostications. We still refused to go until we heard news of my uncle, although we had felt danger and foreseen, more.”[80] Two days later, they had their acknowledge – “When daylight came [with ash and pumice outside 186 sq. Miles of land around the volcano, having transformed the entire Sarnus Valley] … his body was found untouched, unharmed, in the clothing that he had had on. He looked more asleep than dead”[81] as did all of Pompeii and Herculaneum, when they were unearthed nearly 1700 years later.
“I sing these words to you… on the Cumaean shore where Vesuvius sends up a broken anger, upwhirling fires emulous of Etna. In a future generation, when crops spring up again, when this wasteland regains its green, will men believe that cities lie beneath?” Publius Statius asked in Book Iv, episode Iv of Silvae.[82] In the words of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121-A.D. 180), Pompeii and Herculaneum were “entirely dead,”[83] abandoned and forgotten. Yet artifacts such as paintings, frescoes, and cavities where victims had perished and decayed in the ash, remained intact providing proof that at one time these towns were full of breath and life.
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[45]Pliny Letter 6.20. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/02.html
[46]Joan Jahnige. Eruption of Vesuvius. January 2004. 30 April, 2006. http://www.dl.ket.org/latin3/historia/places/vesuvius/eruptions.htm
[47]Bonnie S. Lawrence, task Editor. Restless Earth. (Washington, D.C.: The National Geographic Society, 1997), p. 192.
[48]Ad 79 – Vesuvius explodes. 5 of May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm
[49]Rosella Lorenzi. The Long, Deathly Silence. 2 May, 2006. http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/pompeii/history/history.html [50]Ad 79 – Vesuvius explodes. 5 of May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm
[51]Pliny Letter 6.16. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/01.html
[52]Pliny Letter 6.20. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/02.html
[53]Pliny Letter 6.16. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/01.html
[54]Ad 79 – Vesuvius explodes. 5 of May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm
[55]Tony Allan. Secrets Of The old Dead. (London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 2004), p. 92.
[56]Mount Vesuvius. Encarta.com. 2006. 2 May, 2006. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564987/Vesuvius.html
[57]Joan Jahnige. Eruption of Vesuvius. January 2004. 30 April, 2006. http://www.dl.ket.org/latin3/historia/places/vesuvius/eruptions.htm
[58]Nigel Cawthorne. 100 Catastrophic Disasters. (New York: Barnes & Noble Publishing, Inc., 2003) 152.
[59]Rosella Lorenzi. The Long, Deathly Silence. 2 May, 2006. http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/pompeii/history/history.html
[60]Rosella Lorenzi. The Long, Deathly Silence. 2 May, 2006. http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/pompeii/history/history.html
[61]Helen Briggs. Vesuvius victims ‘died instantly.’ Bbc.com. April 11, 2001. 2 May, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1272171.stm
[62]Ad 79 – Vesuvius explodes. 5 of May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm
[63]Vesuvius, Italy. 5 May, 2006. [http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_vesuvius.html]
[64]Jason Urbanus. More Vesuvius Victims. Newsbriefs March/April 2003. 5 May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.org/0303/newsbriefs/pompeii.html
[65]http://www.volcanolive.com/vesuvius2.html
[66]Ad 79 – Vesuvius explodes. 5 of May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm
[67]Mr. Sedivy. Historical Background: The old City of Pompeii. Highlands Ranch High School (Highlands Ranch, Colorado) 8 May, 2006. http://mr_sedivy.tripod.com/pompeii.html
[68]Regio I orchad of Fugitives. 8 May, 2006. http://www.pompeisepolta.com/english/fuggiaschi.htm
[69]Pliny Letter 6.20. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/02.html
[70]Bonnie S. Lawrence, task Editor. Restless Earth. (Washington, D.C.: The National Geographic Society, 1997), p. 192.
[71]Bonnie S. Lawrence, task Editor. Restless Earth. (Washington, D.C.: The National Geographic Society, 1997), p. 192.
[72]Tony Allan. Secrets Of The old Dead. (London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 2004), p. 92.
[73]Rosella Lorenzi. The Long, Deathly Silence. 2 May, 2006. http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/pompeii/history/history.html
[74]Ad 79 – Vesuvius explodes. 5 of May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm
[75]Joan Jahnige. Eruption of Vesuvius. January 2004. 30 April, 2006. http://www.dl.ket.org/latin3/historia/places/vesuvius/eruptions.htm
[76]Dio Cassius. The Eruption of Vesuvius that buried Pompei, “Roman History Epitome of Book Lxvi” (A.D. 203) 2 May, 2006. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66]*.html
[77]Marcus Valerius Martialis. Epigram 4 :44. A.D. 91. 4 May, 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/04.html
[78]Ad 79 – Vesuvius explodes. 5 of May, 2006. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm
[79]Pliny Letter 6.20. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/02.html
[80]Pliny Letter 6.20. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/02.html
[81]Pliny Letter 6.16. 30 April 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/01.html
[82]Publius Papinius Statius. Silvae, Book Iv episode Iv “Epistula ad Vitorium Marcellum.” 1 May 2006. http://www.amherst.edu/~classics/DamonFiles/classics36/ancsrc/10.html
[83]Marcus Aurelius. The Meditations. A.D. 167. 4 May, 2006. http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/aurelius.html
The End of Pompeii and Herculaneum (August 24-25, A.D. 79) Part 3 of 3